Important Questions
Brief Answer Questions (2 marks)
1.What is historicity?
Ans: Historicity refers to the quality of having historical significance or relevance. It is a term used to describe the authenticity and accuracy of historical information, events, and artifacts. In other words, historicity refers to the degree to which something can be confirmed as a true and accurate representation of the past.
2.Name first and last king of Kirant dynasty.
Ans: The first and last king of Kirant dynasty are Sardar Yalambar (Yalung) and Gasti respectively.
3.Define Dolaji system.
Ans: In the Malla period, custom of marrying the groom in the bride's house and taking the bride's surname was called Dolaji system. By this custom, the bridegroom had to adopt the surname of the bride. According to this, Kumar Jayasthiti assumed the title of Malla after marrying Princess Rajalladevi.
4.Write any two features of Gopal dynasty.
Ans: Any two features of Gopal dynasty are given below:
· They used to rule from Matatirtha in Kathmandu.
· It is mentioned that Pashupatinath was built and worship started during Gopal Dynasty.
5.Write any two contributions of Amshuverma.
Ans: Any two contributions of Amshuverma are listed below:
· He decentralized the country from central to local level and the administrative power was given to the heads of the local village.
· He built a beautiful seven-storeyed grand palace 'Kailashkut Bhawan', at Devpatan which was the master piece in architectural development at that time.
Short Answer Questions (5 marks)
1.Why is Lichchhavi period is known as the golden period in the history of Nepal?
Ans: Lichchhavi period is known as the golden period in the history of Nepal. This statement clarifies that Lichchhavi period was in the peak of its civilization. The Lichchhavi civilization can be explained in the following points;
· Lichchhavi society was a heterogeneous one with diversity in caste and ethnicity.
· People use to live in joint family.
· An effective and efficient governance system with decentralization of power, fair judicial system and progress in arts, architecture, trade and commerce, peace and prosperity, harmonious society were the key features of Lichchhavi civilization.
· There was peace and prosperity in the kingdom of Nepal during the rule of the Lichchhavis.
· The lichchhavi rulers were efficient and effective administrators.
· The lichchhavi kings extended the boundary of Nepal and maintained good relationships with India, China and Tibet.
· Currency started to be used during the Lichchhavi period. The popular coins include Manaka, Gunaka, Pashupati, Jishnu Gupta and Vrisha named mudras.
2.Describe the economic and political conditions of Lichchhavi period of Nepal.
Ans : The lichchhavi period also known as the golden period in the history of Nepal is the period of 249-879 AD or 306-935 BS. The economic and political conditions of Lichchhavi period is described as follows:
a. Economic condition
The economic condition of Lichchhavi period includes following things:
· Agriculture as the main occupation: Animal husbandry and crops cultivation were the main occupations in Nepal. During the Lichchhavi period, industry and trade were greatly advanced. Both internal and external trade was prevalent in this period. From Nepal, grains, fruits, food grains, clothes, chillies, metal art objects etc. were exported to Tibet.
· Use of Currency: Currency started to be used during the Lichchhavi period. The popular coins of the Lichchhavi period include Manaka, Gunaka, Pashupati, Jishnu Gupta and Vrisha named mudras.
· Strong Tax System: The tax system was also very strong during Lichchhavi period. The tax system became the main basis of the state's income. The most prevalent taxes were "Bhaag kar" levied on agriculture, "Bhog kar" levied on animal husbandary, and "Dastur kar" levied on commercial business.
b. Political condition
The Lichchhavi period was marked by a centralized monarchy, efficient administration, and codified laws ensuring justice. Prominent rulers like Mandeva I and Amshuverma fostered territorial expansion, diplomacy, and cultural harmony, with Hinduism and Buddhism coexisting peacefully. For the effective administration of the country, they had set up a council of ministers headed by 'Mahasamanta' (equivalent to prime minister).
3. Who is Mandev? Write the reforms carried out by him.
Ans: Manadev is called the "first historical king of Nepal" as he started to keep the recorded history (such as stone inscription in front of Changu Narayan temple). He was the son of King Dharma Deva and queen Rajyawati. According to Changunarayan inscription, he ruled from 521 to 562 BS. While he was a mere a child Dharma Deva died. So, his queen mother Rajyawati helped him much in the administration. His major contributions are as follows:
· He established a vast state of Nepal by extending up to the Himalayas in the north, terai in the south, across the Gandaki river in the west and the Koshi region in the east Nepal.
· He built a famous royal palace 'Managriha' at Gokarna. He also built the shrine of Changunarayan, and renovated the Chakra Mahavihar.
· He also introduced the system of tape for measuring land distances.
· Though he was Vaishnavist (Hindu), he was equally tolerant to Buddhism as well, as he built many temple, vihars and chaityas in different parts of the country.
· At Changunarayana, he made an inscription by erected a garuda pillar.
· He created a beautiful statue of Vishnu Vikrant in Chnagunarayan temple. He also built the images of Tribikram at Lazimpat.
· He introduced a metal currency called Manak for the first time in the history of Nepal.
4. Write the economic condition during Malla period.
Ans: Agriculture was the main economic activity in the Malla Nepalese society. However, there was also development in trade, cottage and small scale industries. The economic condition of the Malla period can be understood under the following points;
a. Crops Cultivation: Crops cultivation was the main occupation of the Nepalese people because of fertile land which provided sufficient supplies to the farmers.
b. Animal Husbandry: Animal husbandry was another aspect of the Malla economy. As there was enough grassland, rearing animal was an easy and common activity of people.
c. Classification of Land: Jayasthiti Malla categorized the land into four categories namely Abbal, Doyam, Sim and Chahar based on fertility. The best cultivated land was called Abbal and the poorest land was called Chahar.
d. Guthi System: Guthi system was also practiced during this period. Guthi land means the land set apart by the state for the establishment of monasteries and worship, schools, pilgrimages of deities and social rites. It was customary for farmers to pay some percentage of their produce to Guthi.
e. Irrigation System: Rajkula was arranged for irrigation. As special attention was paid to the irrigation system from the Bagmati, Bishnumati, Hanumati,Manohara, Tukucha etc. rivers.
f. Development of Industries and Trade: Nepal's trade and commerce with India and Tibet was highly developed at that time. There was substantial progress in industry, trade and commerce. Herbs, woods, wools and blankets were exported to Tibet.
g. Tax and Revenue Collection: At that time, in addition to encouraging trade, the sums received from excise customs, revenues and financial penalties on criminals became sources of national income.
h. Use of Coins: Mahindra Malla issued silver coins, Ratna Malla introduced copper coins and Jayasthiti Malla introduced gold coins so that the trade would be easy.
5. "The medieval period is called the period of turbulence". Why?
Ans: The medieval period of Nepal, spanning approximately from the 8th to the 18th century, is often referred to as a "period of turbulence" due to frequent political instability, territorial disputes, and power struggles among various rulers and kingdoms. This era was marked by fragmentation and conflict, as well as cultural and economic developments that were shaped by these challenges.
1. Political Fragmentation and Power Struggles
After the fall of the Licchavi dynasty, Nepal fragmented into several small kingdoms, especially during the Malla period (12th–18th century). The division of the Kathmandu Valley into three kingdoms—Kantipur, Patan, and Bhaktapur—by King Yaksha Malla after his death intensified rivalries. The rulers constantly engaged in wars to expand their territories, leading to chronic instability and hindering unified governance.
2. Frequent Shifts in Power
The medieval period saw frequent changes in rulers and dynasties, such as the transitions from the Thakuri dynasty to the Mallas. Internal conflicts and power grabs disrupted administrative continuity and weakened the political structure. For example, the Khas Kingdom in western Nepal rose to prominence but eventually disintegrated due to internal strife and external invasions.
3. External Threats and Invasions
Nepal faced numerous external threats and invasions during this period. Invaders from Tibet, the Bengal Sultanate, and other Indian polities often destabilized the region. A notable example is the Tibetan invasion in the 14th century, which resulted in the sacking of the Kathmandu Valley, causing significant political and economic turmoil.
4. Economic Disruption
Warfare and political instability disrupted vital trade routes connecting Nepal to Tibet, India, and China. While some Malla rulers attempted to promote trade and economic development, ongoing conflicts often undermined these efforts. This instability made it difficult to sustain consistent economic growth, despite the Valley’s strategic importance as a trade hub.
5. Social and Religious Tensions
The medieval period saw the rise of caste divisions and the dominance of Hinduism, which sometimes created tensions with other religious traditions, such as Buddhism. Social policies enforced by rulers, particularly in the Kathmandu Valley, deepened societal divisions and led to localized unrest, further complicating the political landscape.
6. Decline of Unified Nepal
Before Nepal’s unification under Prithvi Narayan Shah in the mid-18th century, the region was divided into over 50 small kingdoms. These fragmented polities often competed with each other for power, leaving Nepal vulnerable to external threats and internal instability. This division underscored the lack of unity that defined the medieval period as a turbulent era.
In summary, the medieval period of Nepal is termed a "period of turbulence" due to the lack of political unity, frequent conflicts, external threats, and socio-economic challenges. Despite the challenges, this era also witnessed significant contributions to Nepal's cultural heritage, including the flourishing of art, architecture, and literature under the Malla rulers.
Long Answer Questions (10 marks)
1.What are the causes and consequences of division of Malla kingdom?
Ans: The division of the Malla Kingdom was caused by several factors:
1. Power Struggle Among Sons: After King Yaksha Malla's death, his sons competed for control, leading to the fragmentation of the kingdom into Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur.
2. Succession Disputes: The lack of clear succession rules caused intense conflicts among the heirs, each claiming the throne, which led to the kingdom's division into rival territories.
3. Disagreement on Division of the Kingdom: The partition of the kingdom was not agreed upon by all heirs, causing resentment and escalating conflicts between the newly formed kingdoms.
4. Political Rivalry: Constant competition between the rulers of the three kingdoms for power, wealth, and influence deepened the divisions, making cooperation impossible.
5. Economic Factors: Competition over valuable resources like land and trade routes intensified rivalries. Each kingdom sought to control and exploit these economic assets, contributing to political instability.
6. External Threats: Neighboring forces, such as Tibet and the Bengal Sultanate, took advantage of the Malla kingdoms' internal conflicts, further weakening the region and preventing any unified defense.
These factors collectively led to the disintegration of the Malla Kingdom into smaller, hostile entities. The major consequences of division of Malla kingdom are given below:
1. Emergence of Smaller, More Localized Power Structures
The fragmentation of the Malla Kingdom resulted in the formation of smaller, more localized kingdoms like Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur. Each kingdom developed its own political system and governance, which led to a decentralized political structure and reduced centralized control over the region.
2. Increased Political Competition and Conflict
As the Malla Kingdom split, the three new kingdoms constantly competed for power, land, and influence. This rivalry resulted in frequent wars, diplomatic tensions, and an overall increase in political instability, preventing cooperation between the regions.
3. Development of Cultural and Artistic Diversity
The division allowed each kingdom to develop its own cultural and artistic identity. With rulers supporting distinct architectural styles, religious practices, and local traditions, the Malla period saw a rich diversity of art and culture across the Kathmandu Valley, including the creation of temples, palaces, and sculptures unique to each region.
4. Economic Specialization
Each kingdom specialized in different economic activities based on its resources and location. Kathmandu became a major trade center, Patan focused on craftsmanship and metalworking, while Bhaktapur concentrated on agriculture and pottery. This specialization strengthened the individual economies but also deepened competition.
5. Shared Cultural and Religious Traditions
Despite political divisions, the kingdoms of the Kathmandu Valley shared common cultural and religious practices. Hinduism and Buddhism remained integral to the region’s identity, and shared festivals, rituals, and religious celebrations helped maintain a cultural unity even amid political fragmentation.
6. Vulnerability to External Threats
The absence of a unified kingdom left the Malla states vulnerable to external invasions and influence. Neighboring powers like Tibet, the Bengal Sultanate, and the rising Gorkha Kingdom took advantage of the internal division, weakening the region and contributing to its eventual conquest by the Gorkhas in the 18th century.
These consequences shaped the trajectory of Nepal’s political, economic, and cultural development until the eventual unification under Prithvi Narayan Shah.
2. What are the causes of fall of Malla Kingdom?
Ans: The fall of the Malla Kingdom in Nepal was due to a combination of internal and external factors. Some of the key causes are:
1. Internal Conflicts and Power Struggles
The Malla Kingdom was weakened by constant internal power struggles among the ruling families. Successive kings often fought over succession, leading to instability. The rivalry between the three main Malla kingdoms—Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, and Patan—intensified, as each sought to expand its territory at the expense of the others.
2. Decline of Strong Leadership
By the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Malla kings became increasingly ineffective and unable to maintain strong leadership. Weak rulers were unable to address the growing political instability, internal strife, and external threats, which led to a gradual decline in their power and authority.
3. Economic Decline
Frequent conflicts and the division of the Malla kingdoms hindered economic growth. The disruption of trade routes, resource depletion, and loss of agricultural productivity affected the economic stability of the Malla states. Without strong economic foundations, the kingdoms were unable to defend themselves effectively or maintain the resources required to sustain their rule.
4. Military Weakness
As the Malla kingdoms engaged in constant internal warfare, their military strength was spread thin. The lack of a unified defense made the Malla kingdoms vulnerable to external threats, particularly the rising Gorkha Kingdom, which had a more unified military structure and stronger leadership under Prithvi Narayan Shah.
5. External Invasions and Pressure
The Malla kingdoms faced pressure from external forces, including Tibet, the Bengal Sultanate, and the Gorkhas. These external threats exploited the internal divisions of the Malla kingdoms, weakening their ability to resist invasion. The Gorkha Kingdom, led by Prithvi Narayan Shah, capitalized on this fragmentation and began conquering the Malla territories in the mid-18th century.
6. Lack of Unity and Coordination
The division of the Malla Kingdom into smaller, competing states prevented any coordinated effort to defend against external forces. The lack of unity made it easier for the Gorkhas to defeat individual Malla kingdoms one by one, ultimately leading to their downfall.
7. Rise of the Gorkha Kingdom
The most significant factor in the fall of the Malla Kingdom was the rise of the Gorkha Kingdom. Prithvi Narayan Shah, the king of Gorkha, capitalized on the internal disunity of the Malla kingdoms. He successfully waged military campaigns, first uniting the smaller Gorkha state and then gradually annexing the Malla territories, culminating in the capture of Kathmandu in 1768 and the unification of Nepal.
In conclusion, the fall of the Malla Kingdom was due to a combination of internal fragmentation, weak leadership, economic decline, and the rise of external threats, particularly from the Gorkha Kingdom, which ultimately led to the unification of Nepal under Prithvi Narayan Shah.
3. Explain the socio-cultural condition of Malla period.
Ans: The sociocultural condition during the Malla period in Nepal was rich and complex, marked by various social practices, traditions, and cultural developments. Here's an overview of the key aspects:
1. Joint Family System
The joint family system was prevalent in the Malla period, where multiple generations lived together under one roof. This system emphasized familial bonds, with the eldest male usually taking the role of head of the family. It was a patriarchal structure where authority, property, and decision-making were typically vested in the eldest male.
2. Prevalence of Caste System
The caste system was deeply entrenched in Malla society, with rigid divisions based on occupation, social status, and hereditary roles. People were born into specific castes, and social mobility was limited. Brahmins and Chhetris were at the top of the social hierarchy, while lower castes faced social restrictions and discrimination.
3. Cultural Rituals
The Malla period saw a flourishing of cultural rituals, especially religious festivals, ceremonies, and religious offerings. Hinduism was the dominant religion, but Buddhism also thrived in the Kathmandu Valley. Festivals like Indra Jatra and Tihar were celebrated with great enthusiasm. Rituals centered around temples, shrines, and family rites, reflecting the strong cultural connection to religion.
4. Centre for Education
During the Malla period, education was often limited to higher caste families, especially Brahmins and Chhetris. Gurukuls (traditional schools) were established, and the primary focus was on religious studies, Sanskrit, and scriptures. Kathmandu, with its temples and monasteries, became a center of learning, with scholars contributing to religious, philosophical, and literary works.
5. Language and Literature
The Malla period saw the flourishing of Newar culture and the use of the Newari language in literature. Sanskrit remained the language of religious texts and formal education. Newar literature, including poetry and plays, blossomed under royal patronage. Prominent literary figures contributed to the preservation of local culture through written works.
6. Naming of Dynasty
The naming of dynasties in the Malla period typically followed the paternal lineage, and rulers were often named after their region or territory. The Malla dynasty itself, which ruled over Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, and Patan, was named after the Malla kings who came to power in the 12th century.
7. Origin of Surnames
Surnames in the Malla period were often based on caste, profession, or location. For instance, Brahmins commonly used religious or sacred names, while Kshatriyas might have surnames based on their warrior status. The Newar community often adopted surnames reflecting their occupation or social role.
8. Practice of Dolaji Custom
The Dolaji custom referred to the practice of performing rites and ceremonies to honor deceased family members. This practice was integral to both Hindu and Buddhist traditions during the Malla period, with families paying homage to ancestors through offerings and rituals.
9. Widow Remarriage System
Widow remarriage was a rare practice in the Malla period, as social customs generally prevented it, particularly among higher castes. Widows were often expected to live in austerity, and remarriage was stigmatized. However, there were some exceptions, especially among lower castes where social restrictions were less rigid.
10. Women's Place
Women in Malla society had a subordinate status, confined primarily to domestic duties. They were expected to uphold family honor and traditions. However, royal women in the Malla period had more significant influence, and some even participated in cultural patronage. Nonetheless, women's rights and freedoms were limited in terms of education, property, and social mobility.
11. Evil Customs
Certain evil customs were prevalent during the Malla period, including Sati, the practice where widows were forced to self-immolate on their husband's funeral pyre. This was primarily practiced among high-caste Hindu communities. Although it was not universally practiced, it was still a notable social evil that persisted.
12. Arts and Skills
The Malla period is renowned for its flourishing arts and crafts. Kathmandu became a center for architecture, sculpture, and painting, with elaborate temples, palaces, and shrines built in the traditional pagoda style. Newar artists excelled in metalworking, pottery, wood carving, and painting, and their craftsmanship is still evident in many historical structures.
In summary, the sociocultural conditions of the Malla period were characterized by a rigid caste system, complex family structures, and deep cultural and religious practices. While art, literature, and education thrived under royal patronage, societal norms and practices often reinforced traditional roles, especially for women, and certain customs were oppressive. Nonetheless, this period remains a significant chapter in Nepal's cultural history.
4. Describe the culture and civilization of Kirant dynasty.
Ans: The Kirant Dynasty of Nepal, which flourished around 800 BCE to 300 CE, laid the foundation for many cultural, social, and political aspects that influenced the subsequent development of Nepalese civilization. Though much of the historical details are obscured by time, there are key elements of the Kirant culture and civilization that can be summarized as follows:
1. Administrative Setup for the First Time: The Kirant dynasty established the first form of centralized governance in Nepal, with tribal leaders or local chiefs exercising significant authority under a central figurehead. Their administration was decentralized, allowing for some autonomy within various clans.
2. Judicial System: The judicial system was based on tribal customs, where elders or respected leaders settled disputes and maintained community norms. The emphasis was on restoring harmony and resolving conflicts through consensus rather than strict punitive measures.
3. Open Society: The Kirant society was relatively open, with minimal social stratification and opportunities for social mobility. People from various clans and backgrounds could engage in trade, cultural exchange, and governance, fostering a more inclusive environment.
4. Joint Family System: The joint family system was common, with extended families living together under one roof, headed by the eldest male. This system promoted strong familial ties and ensured mutual support between generations.
5. Egalitarian Society: The Kirant society was relatively egalitarian, with fewer class distinctions compared to later periods. While tribal leaders held power, the social structure allowed for more equality and shared responsibilities among members.
6. Progress in Arts and Architecture: The Kirants contributed to early forms of art and craftsmanship, such as stone carvings, wooden sculptures, and religious shrines. While monumental architecture was not widespread, their artistic expressions were deeply tied to religious practices.
7. Development in Trade and Commerce: Trade flourished under the Kirants due to their strategic location along key routes connecting Nepal with India and Tibet. They exchanged agricultural products, textiles, and crafts, which stimulated local economies.
8. Development of Settlements: The Kirants established settlements near fertile land and rivers, with a focus on agriculture and community living. Over time, these settlements grew into more organized villages, with communal areas for rituals and trade.
9. Religious People: The Kirants were deeply religious, practicing animism and shamanism, worshipping nature and spirits. Shamans played a vital role in religious rituals, healing, and guiding the community spiritually.
10. Religious Tolerance: The Kirants were open to various religious influences, including Hinduism and Buddhism from neighboring regions. This tolerance allowed for the integration of different religious practices, enriching Nepal’s spiritual landscape.
11. Diplomatic Relationship with Neighboring Countries: The Kirants maintained diplomatic relations with neighboring Tibet and India, facilitating trade and cultural exchanges. Their position in the Himalayas made them important players in regional politics and commerce.
In summary, the Kirant Dynasty contributed to the early cultural, social, and political development of Nepal. Their administrative setup, judicial system, open society, and religious tolerance set the groundwork for the evolution of Nepalese civilization. Despite being primarily a tribal society, they made significant strides in arts, trade, and architecture, leaving behind a legacy that influenced future generations in the region.
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